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Contents

Acknowledgements
Foreword
Using This Resource

I. Preparing to Teach
Planning a course
--Defining Instructional Objectives
--Teaching and Learning Styles: The   Academic Culture
--Choosing and Using Instructional   Materials
--Writing a Syllabus
--Syllabus Checklist
--Using the Syllabus in Class
--Summary of Course Planning
Addressing Students' Needs
--Importance of Knowing Your   Students
--Planning Considerations
--Getting to Know Your Students
--Students of Different Backgrounds
--Students with Disabilities
--Teaching Strategies: Non-Native   Speakers of English
--Creating a Learning Environment
--Dealing with Disruptive Behavior in   the Classroom
--Common Disruptive Student   Behaviors and Possible Responses
--Dealing with Apathetic Students
--Cultural Differences for International   Instructors
--Summary of Addressing Students’   Needs
Teaching Tips
--Organizing Class
--Ways to Be Accessible Outside the   Classroom
--Six Common Non-Facilitating   Teaching Behaviors
--Wireless in the Classroom: Advice   for Faculty
--Summary of Teaching Tips

II. Teaching Methods
The First Day of Class
--When the Class Meets You
--When You Meet the Class
--Diversity the Instructor Brings to the   Classroom
--Conversing with Students with   Disabilities
--Moving Forward
--Summary of the First Day of Class
Lecturing
--Strategies for Effective Learning
--Advantages and Disadvantages of   the Traditional Lecture Method
--Enhancing Learning in Large   Classes
--Chalkboard Technique
--Writing Assignments in the Lecture
--Engaging Women in Math and   Science Courses
--Formulating Effective Questions
--Summary of Lecturing
Discussion
--Brief Overview
--The “Nuts and Bolts” of Discussion
--Facilitating Discussion of Sensitive   Issues
--Encouraging Student Contributions
--Alternative Instructional Methods
--Potential Problems in Discussions
--Summary of Discussion
Expanding Teaching Strategies
--Practical Examples
--Show and Tell
--Case Studies
--Teaching with Case Studies
--Guided Design Projects
--Brainstorming
Group Work
--General Information about Using   Groups
--Group Work in an Introductory   Science Laboratory
Science Labs
--The Role of the Lab Instructor
--What Do the Students Need to   Know?
--The First Day
--Planning and Running a Laboratory
--Safety Procedures
--Summary of Science Labs
Teaching Outside the Classroom
--Tutoring
--Office Hours
--Teaching Students to Solve   Problems
--Advising and Extracurricular   Activities
--Summary of Teaching Outside the   Classroom
Overcoming Misconceptions
--Societal Attitudes and Science   Anxiety
--Misconceptions as Barriers to   Understanding Science
--Common Difficulties and   Misunderstandings

III. Teaching-as-Research
Assessing Student Performance
--Establishing Objectives for   Assessment
--Assessment Primer
--Formulating Effective Methods of   Assessment
--Helping Students Succeed on   Assignments and Exams
--The Why and How of Tests
--Grading Lab Reports, Problem Sets,   and Exam Questions
--Grading Checklist
--Grading Specific Activities
--Grading Writing
--Summary of Assessing Student   Performance
How to Evaluate Your Own Teaching
--Evaluating Your Own Teaching
--A Note on Teaching-as-Research

IV. Appendices
Inspirational Essays
--Mathematics: The Universal   Language of Science
--Transforming Quizzes into Teaching   and Learning Tools
--Teaching My Students to Fish
--Chemistry: The Other Foreign   Language
--Teaching to Different Modes of   Learning
--Notes from a Career in Teaching
Additional Resources
Websites
Graduate Assistant Handbook Outline
--Department- and Institution-Specific   Information
--18 Questions to Have Answered

Works Cited

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Ideally, tests measure students’ achievement of the educational goals for the course, and the test items sample the content and skills that are most important for students to learn. Tests usually ask students questions about material that is most essential to the discipline. A well-constructed test measures a range of cognitive skills, not just students’ recall of facts. However, it is unlikely “that research will ever demonstrate clearly which form of examination, essay or objective, has the more beneficial influence on study and learning” (Ebel & Frisbie, 1986). Your choice of examination form will need to take into account many factors such as the time available for students to take the test, the amount of time you have available to grade it, and what you wish to measure. Some goals and methods of testing, adapted from Fuhrmann and Grasha (1983) are:

• To measure knowledge (recall of common terms, facts, principles, and procedures), ask students to define, describe, identify, list, outline, or select.
• To measure application (solving problems and applying concepts and principles to new situations), ask students to demonstrate, modify, prepare, solve, or use.
• To measure analysis (recognition of unstated assumptions or logical fallacies and ability to distinguish between facts and inferences), ask students to diagram, differentiate, infer, relate, compare, or select.
• To measure comprehension (understanding of facts and principles and interpretation of material), ask students to convert, distinguish, estimate, explain, generalize, define limits, give examples, infer, predict, or summarize.
• To measure synthesis (integration of learning from different areas or solving problems by creative thinking), ask students to categorize, combine, devise, design, explain, or generate.
• To measure evaluation (judging and assessing), ask students to appraise, compare, conclude, discriminate, explain, justify, or interpret.

There are a limited number of standard formats for exam questions. Multiple choice questions can measure students’ mastery of details, specific knowledge as well as complex concepts. Because multiple choice test items can be answered quickly, you can assess students’ grasp of many topics in an hour exam. Although multiple choice test items are easily scored, good multiple choice questions can be challenging to write.

One of the best ways to identify useful wrong answers for multiple-choice items is first to ask the question in a free response format. When the free-response tests are graded, look for common errors or misconceptions and tally them. If what went wrong is not clear from a student’s response, ask the student to explain how he or she went about answering the question when the papers are returned. Then use common errors as the wrong answers for multiple-choice questions.

After several years of this activity — less, if you share items with colleagues — you will have a sizable bank of good multiple choice questions, and will understand common misconceptions and errors well enough to construct suitable multiple-choice questions without going through the preliminary step of giving free-response items first (Herron, 1996).

Short answer questions can require one or two sentences or brief paragraphs. They are easier to write than multiple choice tests but take longer to score, and may not be as useful as essay exams to measure the depth of student understanding. Essay questions probe students’ understanding of broad issues and general concepts. They can measure how well students are able to organize, integrate, and synthesize material and apply information to new situations. Unlike multiple choice tests, you can only pose a few essay questions in an hour. Further, essay tests are sometimes difficult to grade.

Problem solving forms the core of many STEM courses, and numerical problems are prominent on many exams in these courses. Students who successfully answer these test questions do not necessarily grasp the underlying concept (Gabel & Bunce, 1994). Traditional numeric problems can incorporate some sort of conceptual essay section which measures the students’ understanding of the concepts involved as well as their ability to use algorithms to solve problems. Nakhleh and Mitchell (1993) offer a sample of multiple choice questions for a limited number of chemistry concepts, in which the answers are pictorial representations of molecular events. Although you may find it difficult to develop an appropriate set of possible answers, asking students to draw a picture of the phenomenon described in the numerical problem is a good way to test their conceptual understanding.

Keep in mind that novice problem solvers take longer to locate appropriate strategies than experienced problem solvers. As a rule of thumb, it could take students ten minutes to solve a problem you might do in two minutes, so plan your test length accordingly. There are several resources to help faculty members develop, administer, and grade exams.